Raman spectroscopy is a well-known technique for performing chemical analysis. In conventional Raman spectroscopy, high intensity monochromatic light provided by a light source, such as a laser, is directed onto an analyte (or sample) that is to be chemically analyzed. A majority of the incident photons are elastically scattered by the analyte molecule. In other words, the scattered photons have the same energy, and thus the same frequency, as the photons that were incident on the analyte. However, a small fraction of the photons (i.e., about 1 in 107 photons) are inelastically scattered by the analyte molecules. These inelastically scattered photons have a different frequency than the incident photons. This inelastic scattering of photons is termed the “Raman effect.” The inelastically scattered photons may have frequencies greater than or, more typically, less than the frequency of the incident photons.
When an incident photon collides with a molecule, energy may be transferred from the photon to the molecule or from the molecule to the photon. When energy is transferred from the photon to the molecule, the scattered photon will emerge from the sample having a lower energy and a corresponding lower frequency. These lower-energy Raman scattered photons are commonly referred to in Raman spectroscopy as the “Stokes radiation.” A small fraction of the analyte molecules are already in an energetically excited state. When an incident photon collides with an excited molecule, energy may be transferred from the molecule to the photon, which will emerge from the sample having a higher energy and a corresponding higher frequency. These higher-energy Raman scattered photons are commonly referred to in Raman spectroscopy as the “anti-Stokes radiation.”
The Stokes and the anti-Stokes radiation are detected by a detector, such as a photomultiplier or a wavelength-dispersive spectrometer, which converts the energy of the impinging photons into an electrical signal. The characteristics of the electrical signal are at least partially a function of the energy (or wavelength, frequency, wave number, etc.) of the impinging photons and the number of the impinging photons (intensity). The electrical signal generated by the detector can be used to produce a spectral graph of intensity as a function of frequency for the detected Raman signal (i.e., the Stokes and anti-Stokes radiation). A unique Raman spectrum corresponding to the particular analyte may be obtained by plotting the intensity of the inelastically scattered Raman photons against their frequency. This unique Raman spectrum may be used for many purposes, such as identifying an analyte, identifying chemical states or bonding of atoms and molecules in the analyte, and determining physical and chemical properties of the analyte. Raman spectroscopy may be used to analyze a single molecular species or mixtures of different molecular species. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy may be performed on a number of different types of molecular configurations, such as organic and inorganic molecules in either crystalline or amorphous states.
Molecular Raman scattering of photons is a weak process. As a result, powerful, costly laser sources typically are used to generate high intensity excitation radiation to increase the weak Raman signal for detection. Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) is a technique that allows for generation of a stronger Raman signal from an analyte relative to conventional Raman spectroscopy. In SERS, the analyte molecules are adsorbed onto, or placed adjacent to, a Raman-active metal surface or structure (a “SERS-active structure”). The interactions between the molecules and the structure cause an increase in the strength of the Raman signal. The mechanism of Raman signal enhancement exhibited in SERS is not completely understood. Two main theories of enhancement mechanisms have been presented in the literature: electromagnetic enhancement and chemical (or “first layer”) enhancement. (For further discussion of these surface enhancement mechanism theories, see A. M. Michaels, M. Nirmal, & L. E. Brus, “Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy of Individual Rhodamine 6G Molecules on Large Ag Nanocrystals,” J. Am. Chem. Soc. 121, 9932-39 (1999)).
Several SERS-active structures have been employed in SERS techniques, including active electrodes in electrolytic cells, active metal colloid solutions, and active metal substrates such as a roughened metal surface or metal “islands” formed on a substrate. For example, it has been shown that adsorbing analyte molecules onto or near a specially roughened metal surface made from gold or silver may enhance the effective Raman scattering intensity by factors of between 103 and 106 when averaged over the illuminated area of the sample.
Recently, Raman spectroscopy has been performed employing randomly oriented nanostructures, such as nanometer scale needles, particles, and wires, as opposed to a simple roughened metallic surface. This process will be referred to hereinafter as NERS. The intensity of the Raman scattered photons from a molecule adsorbed on such a nanostructure may be increased by factors as high as 1014-16. Thus, the intensity of Raman scattered photons could be increased over what is obtained presently if there was a method for forming NERS-active structures that included nanoscale features having well controlled size, shape, location, and orientation. Also, the inability to efficiently produce such NERS-active structures is impeding research directed to completely understanding the enhancement mechanisms and, therefore, the ability to optimize the enhancement effect. In addition, NERS-active structures require significant time and money to fabricate. If these problems can be overcome, the performance of nanoscale electronics, optoelectronics, and molecular sensors may be significantly improved.
Accordingly, there is a need for NERS-active structures that include nanoscale features having well controlled size, shape, location, and orientation, and methods for their manufacture. In addition, there is a need for methods for producing high quantities of such NERS-active structures at relatively low cost.